Art and Brain Insights From Neuropsychology Biology and Evolution

• Journal Listing
• J Anat
• v.216(2); 2010 Feb
• PMC2815940

J Anat. 2010 February; 216(2): 177–183.

Art and brain: insights from neuropsychology, biology and evolution

Abstract

Art is a uniquely man action associated fundamentally with symbolic and abstract cognition. Its practice in human societies throughout the world, coupled with seeming not-functionality, has led to three major brain theories of fine art. (i) The localized encephalon regions and pathways theory links art to multiple neural regions. (2) The display of art and its aesthetics theory is tied to the biological motivation of courtship signals and mate selection strategies in animals. (3) The evolutionary theory links the symbolic nature of art to disquisitional pivotal brain changes in Homo sapiens supporting increased evolution of linguistic communication and hierarchical social grouping. Collectively, these theories betoken to art as a multi-procedure noesis dependent on various encephalon regions and on redundancy in fine art-related functional representation.

Keywords: aesthetics and encephalon, attraction and hormones, beauty and brain, brain damage in artists, language and fine art, mate selection and art, neuroscience and art

Introduction

The enormous diverseness of fine art created in human societies throughout the world expresses a multitude of ideas, experiences, cultural concepts, creativity and social values. The arts – paintings, sculpture, theater, poetry, film, music and trip the light fantastic toe to name just a few – grade a communication system between creative person and viewer, represented in a manner not afforded past language alone. Whereas near anybody can use language, only a few can create fine art compositions with qualities that arm-twist reactions of pleasure and appreciation for subsequent centuries and millennia. Considering the compositions seem to incorporate unique agreement, their neuroanatomical basis is a challenge. Clues and insights can be obtained from several sources including the report of established artists with encephalon damage, the times of early humans when fine art practice began, evolution of Homo sapiens and immediate ancestors, besides as discussion about biological motivation, such as mate option strategies in animals, and diverse fields such as archaeology, anthropology and the fossil record (meet Fig. i).

Diagrammatic illustration summarizing factors that contribute to the uniqueness of art practice in homo societies. The fundamental knowledge behind the arts concerns symbolic and abstract knowledge. The biological motivation theory and encephalon evolution in H. sapiens contributed to the emergence of the arts and are discussed in this work. Fine art is viewed here as a course of a communicative system betwixt artist and viewer.

Several factors have simultaneously shaped the search for the elusive underpinnings of art in the brain, namely its ubiquitous presence in man societies, in contradistinction to its absence in animals, fine art's symbolic and representational essence, its seeming lack of functionality and its relatedness to pleasance. Three theories, which can be roughly grouped together into the localized brain regions or pathways, biological motivation of courtship displays and evolutionary explanations, accept been proposed. The background and sources of evidence for these fine art and brain theories, particularly the visual arts, are described in this work (for general music and brain reviews run into Peretz, 2006; Patel, 2007). The localized brain regions theories focus on specific encephalon areas, pathways and physiological responses (reviewed in Zaidel, 2005). The biological theories link art to mate choice (sexual choice) strategies in animals (Miller, 2000), whereas the evolutionary theories necktie art to critical alterations in the behavior of H. sapiens such as the use of symbolism (d'Errico et al. 2003; McBrearty & Stringer, 2007) or a sudden emergence of modernistic language around 45 000 years ago (Klein, 1999). With regards to the evolutionary association of language and art, the fundamental argument concerns the precise fine art shapes, marks and forms that appeared effectually 45 000 years ago and such precision is interpreted by some scholars as beingness associated with precise words, formal structure and meanings (Wade, 2006). Evidence for the do of art prior to the emergence of H. sapiens is thin, even as firsthand ancestors such as H. erectus or H. habilis produced numerous types of rock hand tools. It would seem that the practice of art in all of its manifestations is a belatedly event in the Homo line.

Brain regions and art

Brain harm in established artists

In neuropsychology and neurology, the human relationship betwixt brain structures and their functions is traditionally inferred from behavioral furnishings of impairment in regional brain areas. Alterations, if any, in artistic production in established artists following the damage is of smashing interest because they provide a strong basis for linking fine art to neural regions. As the complexity of fine art itself defies breakdown into easily definable elements, the focus is more often than not on general creative categories. Thus, the quest addresses region- or pathway-specific disruptions of general categories such every bit skill, technique, way, talent and creativity, and, whenever possible, the disruption of specific artistic components. Different the fixed meaningful units of language (the words), units of art such equally brush strokes have no meaning outside the context in which they are used. Absence of art-related alterations post-obit encephalon harm in artists would imply both a redundancy in functional representation and multi-regional processing.

Historically, in 1948 the neurologist Théophile Alajouanine published the first neurological paper devoted to a description of the consequences of brain damage in three artists; their virtuosity spanned painting, music and writing (Alajouanine, 1948). They suffered from left hemisphere damage and varying levels of aphasia. In contrast to the writer whose fine art relied exclusively on intact left hemisphere performance (language is principally specialized in the left cerebral hemisphere), the musician and painter continued to be productive (Boller et al. 2005). In the context of their mail service-damage productivity, discerning or classifying their creations is problematic and not easily given to fine analysis. Since Alajouanine's publication, all the same, other neurological cases have been reported for established visual artists; the majority of cases are reviewed in several publications (Rose, 2004; Bogousslavsky & Boller, 2005; Zaidel, 2005). Typically, individual cases are the main source of such information. The cases correspond a wide gamut of etiology and damage localization, ranging from unilateral stroke and tumor in the left and correct hemispheres to diverse progressively dementing diseases such as Alzheimer's disease, Choice's disease and fronto-temporal dementia. The range is informative to the understanding of the extent of loss and preservation of artistic abilities.

The critical comparing concerns pre- vs. mail-damage output and what the comparison shows, past and big, is that artists become on producing art mail service-damage (Zaidel, 2005). Reviewing the case studies of established artists indicates that creative skill – in painting, drawing or sculpting – is largely preserved, regardless of the laterality of the harm or its etiology. Thus, neither the functional specialization of the left nor the right hemisphere, nor any specific lobe or one brain region, can explain art-related knowledge. Similarly, talent and inventiveness are unaltered in non-demented cases with unilateral damage (typically due to stroke or tumor). Fifty-fifty with artists suffering from dementing diseases, where the neurodegenerative damage is extensive, the skills appear to persevere for many years into the illness, even afterward cerebral functions undergo severe deficits (Miller et al. 1996, 1998; Fornazzari, 2005; Drago et al. 2006; Cummings et al. 2008). Withal, toward the end of the illness they do finish to produce fine art, largely considering extensive and widespread neuronal connectivity is lost. With regard to individual techniques applied past artists pre-damage, they are either minimally or non inverse at all postal service-impairment. The personal artistic fashion within a genre practiced in the pre-damage menstruation appears unchanged. (Genre here refers to an art movement or school, as in abstruse art, surrealism, realism, etc.; style hither refers to private artistic expression inside the genre.) Some artists have experimented with a variety of genres in their life-long careers but information technology is the 1 that immediately preceded the damage that is adhered to afterwards. The weight of the bear witness therefore favors art as a multi-process action, one that depends on several brain regions and on redundancy of art-related functional representation rather than on a single cerebral hemisphere, region or pathway.

Some seemingly art-related deficits that emerge following encephalon damage are non specific to artists. Rather, they reflect perceptual and cognitive specialization in the human being brain (Zaidel, 2009). For example, deficits in spatial layout depiction can follow right hemisphere damage, particularly when the right parietal lobe is involved. Spatial perception and topographical memory are specialized in the right parietal lobe (De Renzi, 1982). Similarly, right hemisphere damage sometimes leads to hemi-neglect of the left one-half of space; artists and non-artists do not consummate, i.e. 'neglect', drawings in the left half of the page (Zaidel, 2005). In the majority of cases, the hemi-neglect dissipates inside the beginning couple of months mail service-harm. In i interesting effect involving an artist, the neglect was not manifested in the outline cartoon itself (it was complete on both sides) but rather in the application of the colors to the cartoon; the left half of the drawing was left uncolored, whereas the right was colored (Blanke et al. 2003). A rare case of a writer with left hemisphere impairment suffering from aphasia described by Alajouanine (1948) was unable to write again because of the strong specialization of language in the left hemisphere. Ultimately, the encephalon regions that give ascension to these deficits do not command the essence of art expression under normal, intact conditions.

Additionally, no systematic data are available on the extent of the perceptual and cognitive deficits in artists every bit a group, i.e. we exercise not nevertheless know how severe or balmy these deficits are following brain damage in artists vs. non-artists. There is every reason to suppose that, equally a group, artists would have 'resistance' to some of the deficits. For example, given that visual artists generally develop a trained 'center' through a lifetime of detailed observations, the practice should contribute to redundancy in brain functional representation, one that transcends normal hemispheric or regional specialization.

Preference responses to paintings measured with neuroimaging

Neuroimaging studies concerning encephalon activation and art works have focused principally on viewers of art rather than on artists themselves, and mainly on aesthetic preference. With neuroimaging techniques (commonly functional magnetic resonance imaging), subjects view art works and betoken their preference while their brains are scanned (reviewed in Nadal et al. 2008). Vartanian & Goel (2004) establish that subjects shown both representational and abstract paintings had increased activation in the right caudate nucleus as well as increased activation in the bilateral occipital gyri, left cingulate sulcus and bilateral fusiform gyri as a part of increased preference for the paintings. Kawabata & Zeki (2004) found that viewing beautiful vs. ugly paintings differentially involved the orbito-frontal cortex and motor cortex, and that different categories of paintings yielded distinct patterns of brain activation. Although neuroimaging techniques can potentially reveal a bully deal about the nature of art from the viewer'south perspective (Jacobsen et al. 2006), the claiming remains the brain of the artist and that is hard to attain with the limitations of current techniques and methodologies.

Colors and visual processing

Colors have a meaning, though not disquisitional, role in visual art. In prolific artists, visual sensory deficits arising from heart defects illustrate the separation between talent and skill from the option or use of colors per se (Nathan, 2002; Ravin, 2008). Visual artists with color blindness are not hampered past their color deficiency in the sense that they nevertheless go on producing art (reviewed in Zaidel, 2005). Homo central processing of color vision is in the occipital lobs, in the expanse equivalent to the V4 of animals, as determined by brain damage and neuroimaging studies. Damage in the surface area results in a deficit known as fundamental achromatopsia (Zeki, 1990). Colour knowledge and color pregnant are linked to the lingual gyrus, which transverses the medial junior occipital and temporal lobes (Meadows, 1974; Miceli et al. 2001). This is separate from object knowledge, which involves knowing many other properties about the object, including identity, shape and utility (Miceli et al. 2001). In the eye, it is the specialized neurons in the retina known as cones that are critical for viewing objects in daylight or artificial light and for seeing color. Under normal circumstances the choice of colors called by artists are adamant by both the physiological status of the heart and color-specializing regions in the encephalon. However, this still leaves the question of special talent for colors in art unanswered.

The biological underpinning of fine art

Artists rarely produce works for their own private viewing. Exhibiting to others is a main feature of art and it is the display aspect that has recently led to the postulation of an interesting biological association between art and animals' courting displays (Zahavi, 1978; Miller, 2001). Charles Darwin distinguished betwixt survival of the fittest and sexual selection, arguing that animals' natural ornaments (due east.grand. colorful plumage) and other forms of animal displays are a product of evolutionary forces specifically promoting ways of sexual allure (with an middle to procreation), as opposed to survival per se (Darwin, 1871). In nature, mate attraction strategies are a ascendant motivational force involving exhibiting one'due south multiple endowments specially with regards to health, genetic quality and fertility (Cronin, 1992). The exhibiting of feathers, furs, lung capacity and physical acrobatics are all types of advertisements designed to concenter a mate. The classic case is that of the peacock's tail. It is too elaborate to be used effectively to escape predators or to fly and nonetheless information technology serves as an instrument for advertising the various fettle qualities (and, perchance, beauty). Mate option strategies, in both animals and humans, reflect the brain of the organism with all of its capabilities and limitations. The inference with art is that the display signals the intelligence, knowledge, physical forcefulness, skill, creativity and talent of the artist (Miller, 2000).

Allure: hormones

Hormones play a critical part in the mate choice procedure. The hypothalamus is the major neuroanatomical site for producing hormones and modulating their levels. Courting signals are triggered by hormonal secretion and perceived by observers, be they potential mates or rivals, whose ain behavioral repertoire is stimulated and altered by hormones. Artists use multitudes of techniques to draw attention to their composition and the caste of attention given to the art might depend on hormonal levels in the viewer. In the visual arts, for example, size, color, contents, symbolic message, material and context are just a few attention-seeking techniques. In this context, one hormone to consider is oxytocin. Information technology is a hormone (and a neurotransmitter) identified equally promoting zipper, bonding, approach-to-the-other, trust and positive social behavior. It is produced in the hypothalamus and secreted into the vascular system by the pituitary gland. In empirical inquiry involving humans, manipulating levels of oxytocin has been shown to alter levels of trust in males engaged in a financial game (Damasio, 2005; Kosfeld et al. 2005; Zak et al. 2005). In a speculative vein, oxytocin levels in the brain of the viewers might likewise exist part of the neural machinery involved in attracting viewers to fine art displays. What the triggers in the artwork might be remains to be resolved. Futurity inquiry could focus on its role in this regard.

Attraction: aesthetics of art

In ways that take not yet been deciphered (scientifically, philosophically or any other way), the symbolism in art and aesthetics seem to be intertwined. Physiologically, experiential pleasure is linked to increased levels of dopamine, GABA and various neuropeptides (Burgdorf & Panksepp, 2006) just what triggers the increase in the context of art is not known. The role of aesthetics in fine art tin can exist regarded as follows: The symbolic content of a piece of work of art draws the viewer'southward attention through its aesthetics. The latter is not deliberately 'placed' past the artist in the limerick but rather reflects the sum full of the artistic virtuosity itself and an emergent 'aesthetic' property distilled in the mind of the viewer. In other words, the cues for the aesthetic contents are extracted by the mind of the viewer. The extent to which the artist'south heed engages (communicates) with the viewer'due south heed is gauged by the corporeality of aesthetics in the work. However-called ugly works attract attention and arm-twist aesthetic-related responses. Abhorrent discipline matter can be displayed and still viewers regard the work as exceedingly beautiful. With allure to the creative display comes the contemplation of the artistic bulletin, be it a face up, historical event, nature scene, innovation, mere ideas or concepts, colour combinations, etc. Artistic content varies across cultures but not the role of aesthetics in the fine art of the civilization, if we regard the aesthetics of fine art to have biological underpinnings (as described above). Why else would fine art created in distant lands influence Western artists at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries? Van Gogh, Degas, Picasso, Modigliani and many others in their circle were profoundly influenced past Japanese, African and Pacific Islands fine art without always visiting those lands or speaking their language. Similarly, non-artists today are attracted to art works produced in afar times and locales without the do good of knowledge of the contexts in which those works were created. Biological and neuroanatomical underpinnings in the allure process, in artists and not-artists alike, could exist regarded as the common denominator.

Aesthetics and pleasure: some neural underpinnings

Aesthetics are associated with a continuum of pleasure-related responses but those are most likely to be associated with motivational neural systems. As described to a higher place, only a few functional neuroimaging studies measuring preference for art works have been published, and with mixed findings (Zaidel, 2005; Nadal et al. 2008). Research on animals, more often than not rats, suggests that experiential pleasure is phenomenologically and physiologically complex (Phillips, 2003), and this could partly explain the lack of consistent findings in the human neuroimaging studies too equally the paucity of such studies. The piece of work of James Olds in the 1950s on rats initiated the search for the anatomical underpinnings of pleasance post-obit observations suggesting a 'pleasance heart' in the hypothalamus (Olds, 1956). Subsequent research linked pleasure in animals with motivational behavior, including appetite, survival and goal attainment. The 'reward pathway' consisting of the medial forebrain parcel, peculiarly parts that include the lateral and posterior hypothalamus, the ventral tegmental levels and the neurotransmitter dopamine has been linked to pleasure (Leknes & Tracey, 2008). For a while dopamine was regarded as the principal pleasure-related neurotransmitter. Currently, still, there is understanding that neither the 'advantage pathway' alone nor dopamine alone explains the nature of pleasure, liking or preference (Berridge, 2003). Other brain areas such as subcortical regions are critically involved with pleasure-related experiences (Panksepp, 2005; Burgdorf & Panksepp, 2006), as are the orbitofrontal cortex regions (Rolls & Grabenhorst, 2008) and the limbic system. In addition to dopamine, the opiates, GABA and various neuropeptides are now considered crucial in pleasure-related experiences (Burgdorf & Panksepp, 2006; Leknes & Tracey, 2008). Clearly, refining our agreement of the neural basis of the artful response to art remains a serious challenge.

Evolutionary theories of art and encephalon

Of major involvement is the early beginning of art. When did humans first practice art and how tightly was the do linked to a specific pivotal point in H. sapiens encephalon evolution? The fossil record suggests that anatomically modern humans arose 200 000–150 000 years ago in Africa and about 100 000 years ago began expanding through migration to other parts of the world (Wood & Collard, 1999; Relethford, 2008). I fundamental issue is the long time gap between when H. sapiens arose and the subsequent advent of multiple fine art objects and abundant fine art practise. The archaeological evidence points to the Upper Paleolithic, around 45 000–35 000 years ago (a period known equally the Transition), in Western Europe when active, consequent and abundant art appeared. The Western European locale is intriguing considering H. sapiens also expanded to Asia, the Middle East and Eastern Europe. Fine hand tools, minor statuettes fabricated from ivory, tusks, bones and stone as well equally beads and pendants were created in the Upper Paleolithic. This, together with evidence for body paint decorations and jewelry, is viewed equally early signs of stratified status in social groups (Lewis-Williams, 2002). The identification of socially-related levels within social groups and communities would have been aided past the use of visual symbolism, every bit in personal decoration. Thus, co-ordinate to this view, the pivotal circumstances backside the purpose and use of ornamentation by early humans are linked to group identity levels rather than to the production of 'beautiful objects' for personal decoration or to make i appear attractive per se (Bahn, 1998; Lewis-Williams, 2002). Art practise gradually changed, evolved and progressed to exist much more than a group identifier, transforming instead to the virtuosity of private artists admired for their talent and serving a cultural purpose.

Only a trickle of art-related artifacts has been unearthed from earlier periods and this raises the event of symbolic cognition and its expression in the H. sapiens living prior to the Transition. One clue might lie in what happened to the H. sapiens who did not migrate out of Africa 100 000 years agone (Behar et al. 2008). From archaeological findings information technology is suggested that they evolved advanced knowledge in isolated regions along the seacoasts in South Africa and Eastern Africa, harvesting and consuming seafood (to recoup for chronic drought conditions lasting many thousands of years in Africa) that could have had altering effects on the brain (Mellars, 2006). Beads created from seashells, brute teeth, ivory and other materials were used for ornamentation equally early on as lxx 000 years ago in Southward Africa. It is these human groups that, around 60 000–65 000 years ago, migrated out of Africa and spread more widely in the residuum of the globe, including Western Europe, than did those in the start migration. Still, it should be mentioned that cherry ochre and other coloring sources, crude markings on pieces of clay and crude figures take also been unearthed in earlier human habitats throughout the world, signifying the existence of symbolic cognition prior to the 2 major migrations from Africa (McBrearty & Brooks, 2000; McBrearty & Stringer, 2007).

Its symbolic nature notwithstanding, no one would suppose that the do of art seen in the Transition period commenced of a sudden in human beingness but rather that information technology reflects millions of years of evolutionary events and adaptive responses to the interweaving of genomic, ecology, climatic and social factors. Nearly scholars would concord that a gradual development, rather than an abrupt leap, contributed to the consequent practice of fine art (Morgan & Renne, 2008). At the aforementioned fourth dimension, symbolic behavior is not unheard of in animals (de Waal & Tyack, 2003; Addessi et al. 2008) and yet animals do non produce art. The key question that needs to be addressed concerns the critical difference in the brain between animals, early humans and H. sapiens in particular to explain the practice of art. The answer lies in the brain'southward neuroanatomy and biochemistry, increment in regional specialization such equally hemispheric asymmetry in humans, interconnectivity between specialized regions, and the interaction between neuronal densities and brain size, all of which command various behavioral developments in humans, not merely art production. In improver, the germination of tight interdependent social groups might have been more than pivotal in increased art practice than anything else.

Both art and linguistic communication rely on symbolic and referential cognition. Critical positive changes in the encephalon that have been attributed to full-fledged art production by anatomically modern early humans have also been attributed to the simultaneous evolutionary evolution of language. McNeill (1992) has suggested that planned meaningful mitt gestures are speech related and Corballis (2003) has suggested that both hand gestures and facial expressions provided the initial jumping board for linguistic communication development. Lieberman (2007) proposed that upright walking provided the critical adaptive alter that promoted human linguistic communication also as pivotal anatomical changes in the man audio-producing structures in the throat and oral fissure. The genetic mutation of the FOXP2 gene in the anatomically modern H. sapiens has also been suggested as jump-starting language development merely there is contend and controversy well-nigh any unique function of FOXP2 in human linguistic communication (Hauser & Bever, 2008). Importantly, precursors for combinatorial syntactical language (the hallmark of human language) were already in identify in monkeys and apes (Carstairs-McCarthy, 2004), which could imply readiness of the brain to develop art. Despite the precursors there is no show for annihilation even remotely resembling art in non-human primates. And, yet, they do have extensive sound-based and vision-based communication. One could debate that a disquisitional 'symbolic capacity threshold' with genetic and cerebral underpinnings should be reached to produce art.

Fine art and language, despite heavy reliance on symbolic and referential cognition, need not have arisen from a single process; carve up evolutionary paths could have shaped them. Reasons to suppose that art and linguistic communication rely on separate brain pathways tin exist inferred in several means. First, artists with aphasia following left hemisphere damage go along to produce fine art without compromising the essence of their pre-damage creations; symbolic idea is not lost. (Similarly, artists with correct hemisphere impairment do not lose their pre-damage artistic abilities.) Second, language is heavily dependent on highly specialized neuronal regions and circuitries principally in the left hemisphere, and is tightly defined by its output, namely speech, comprehension, writing and reading. In contrast, fine art's communicative power is infinite, its combinatorial powers ranging broadly in form and expression; it is oftentimes ambiguous and lacks 'rigid' pregnant units (Langer, 1962). Third, although practically anybody tin speak and use language to communicate, only a few possess the kind of art-related intelligence required to produce and exhibit art. In sum, not all advice systems employed by humans need share the same neural underpinnings (Hauser & Bever, 2008).

In view of the foregoing, ane could debate here that art is a 'higher' representation of the homo mind than language. Their evolutionary emergence could well have been staggered, where art followed language rather than preceded information technology or depended on it. After all, examples of song and not-verbal linguistic communication communication in monkeys and apes abound, and they are based on neuroanatomical underpinning that has evolved for some 40 million years, while non giving ascension to any art.

Conclusion

Several relevant disciplines contribute to understanding the link betwixt neuroanatomy and fine art. Here nosotros explored the consequences of encephalon damage in established artists, the biological motivation in courtship displays and its relationship to the display and aesthetics of fine art, and the ancestry of art in the early on life of H. sapiens. In evolutionary terms, we can just speculate on the selective pressures that have shaped the human being brain in a direction that forged the practice of art. Fine art and linguistic communication share a reliance on symbolic cognition but they could have developed and been selected through staggered and separate evolutionary paths. With the available data, no single brain region, pathway or cerebral hemisphere tin can explain the brain/fine art relationship. By dissimilarity, it has been possible to ascertain linguistic communication localization in the left hemisphere. This is partly due to the fact that fine art is a complex arrangement where unmarried definable units are not amenable to formulation, unlike those of language. Yet, review of the electric current testify from artists with brain damage suggests that artistic talent, skill and creativity are supported past wide encephalon areas, and are greatly resistant to brain damage. Future consistent interdisciplinary enquiry and detailed descriptions of artists with brain damage should greatly heighten the intersection of art, biological motivation, neuropsychology and the brain.

References

• Addessi E, Mancini A, Crescimbene Fifty, Padoa-Schioppa C, Visalberghi E. Preference transitivity and symbolic representation in capuchin monkeys (cebus apella) PLoS Ane. 2008;3:e2414. [PMC costless commodity] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• Alajouanine T. Aphasia and artistic realization. Brain. 1948;71:229–241. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• Bahn PG. The Cambridge Illustrated History of Prehistoric Art. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 1998. [Google Scholar]
• Behar DM, Villems R, Soodyall H, et al. The dawn of human matrilineal diversity. Am J Hum Gen. 2008;82:1130–1140. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• Berridge KC. Pleasures of the brain. Brain Cogn. 2003;52:106–128. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• Blanke O, Ortigue S, Landis T. Colour fail in an artist. Lancet. 2003;361:264. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• Bogousslavsky J, Boller F, editors. Frontiers in Neurological Neuroscience. Basel: Karger; 2005. Neurological disorders in famous artists. [Google Scholar]
• Boller F, Sinforiani E, Mazzucchi A. Preserved painting abilities subsequently a stroke. The case of Paul-Elie Gernez. Funct Neurol. 2005;20:151–155. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• Burgdorf J, Panksepp J. The neurobiology of positive emotions. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2006;30:173–187. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• Carstairs-McCarthy A. Linguistic communication: many perspectives, no consensus. Science. 2004;303:1299–1300. [Google Scholar]
• Corballis MC. From Hand to Mouth: The Origins of Language. Princeton: Princeton University Press; 2003. [Google Scholar]
• Cronin H. The Emmet and the Peacock. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 1992. [Google Scholar]
• Cummings JL, Miller BL, Christensen DD, Cherry D. Inventiveness and dementia: Emerging diagnostic and handling methods for Alzheimer's disease. CNS Spectrum. 2008;13:i–twenty. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• Damasio A. Brain trust. Nature. 2005;435:571–572. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• Darwin C. The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex. London: John Murray; 1871. [Google Scholar]
• De Renzi East. Disorders of Infinite Exploration and Knowledge. New York: Wiley; 1982. [Google Scholar]
• d'Errico F, Henshilwood C, Lawson K, et al. Archaeological evidence for the emergence of language, symbolism, and music – an culling multidisciplinary perspective. J Globe Prehis. 2003;17:i–70. [Google Scholar]
• de Waal FBM, Tyack PL, editors. Fauna Social Complexity: Intelligence, Culture, and Individualized Societies. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press; 2003. [Google Scholar]
• Drago Five, Crucian GP, Foster PS, et al. Lewy torso dementia and creativity: Case study. Neuropsychologia. 2006;44:3011–3015. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• Fornazzari LR. Preserved painting creativity in an creative person with Alzheimer'south disease. Eur J Neurol. 2005;12:419–424. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• Hauser MD, Bever T. A biolinguistic calendar. Science. 2008;232:1057–1059. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• Jacobsen T, Schubotz RI, Hofel L, Von Cramon DY. Brain correlates of artful judgment of beauty. NeuroImage. 2006;29:276–286. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• Kawabata H, Zeki Southward. Neural correlates of beauty. J Neurophys. 2004;91:1699–1705. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• Klein RG. The Human Career: Human Biological and Cultural Origins. Chicago: Academy of Chicago Press; 1999. [Google Scholar]
• Kosfeld 1000, Heinrichs North, Zak PJ, Fischbacher U, Fehr E. Oxytocin increases trust in humans. Nature. 2005;435:673–676. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• Langer SK. Philosophical Sketches. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Printing; 1962. [Google Scholar]
• Leknes South, Tracey I. A common neurobiology for pain and pleasure. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2008;9:314–320. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• Lewis-Williams D. The Heed in the Cave: Consciousness and the Origins of Art. London: Thames and Hudson; 2002. [Google Scholar]
• Lieberman P. The development of human voice communication: Its anatomical and neural bases. Curr Anthro. 2007;48:39–66. [Google Scholar]
• McBrearty S, Brooks Equally. The revolution that wasn't: A new estimation of the origin of modern human behavior. J Hum Evol. 2000;39:453–563. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• McBrearty Due south, Stringer C. The declension in colour. Nature. 2007;449:793–794. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• McNeill D. Paw and Mind: What Gestures Reveal about Idea. Chicago: Chicago University Press; 1992. [Google Scholar]
• Meadows JC. Disturbed perception of color associated with localized cerebral lesions. Brain. 1974;97:615–632. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• Mellars P. Going Due east: New genetic and archaeological perspectives on the modernistic human colonization of Eurasia. Science. 2006;313:796–800. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• Miceli Grand, Fouch East, Capasso R, Shelton JR, Tomaiuolo F, Caramazza A. The dissociation of color from grade and function knowledge. Nat Neurosci. 2001;4:662–667. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• Miller BL, Ponton M, Benson FD, Cummings JL, Mena I. Enhanced artistic creativity with temporal lobe degeneration. Lancet. 1996;348:1744–1745. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• Miller BL, Cummings J, Mishkin F, et al. Emergence of artistic talent in frontotemporal dementia. Neurology. 1998;51:978–981. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• Miller GF. The Mating Heed: How Sexual Choice Shaped the Development of Human Nature. New York: Doubleday; 2000. [Google Scholar]
• Miller GF. Artful fitness: How sexual selection shaped artistic virtuosity every bit a fitness indicator and artful preferences as mate choice criteria. Bull Psycho Arts. 2001;ii:xx–25. [Google Scholar]
• Morgan LE, Renne PR. Diachronous dawn of Africa's centre rock age: New 40Ar/39Ar ages from the Ethiopian Rift. Geology. 2008;36:967–970. [Google Scholar]
• Nadal M, Munar E, Capó MA, Rosselló J, Cela-Conde CJ. Towards a framework for the study of the neural correlates of aesthetic preference. Spat Vis. 2008;21:379–396. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• Nathan J. The painter and handicapped vision. Clin Exp Optom. 2002;85:309–314. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• Olds J. Pleasure center in the brain. Sci American. 1956;195:105–116. [Google Scholar]
• Panksepp J. Affective consciousness: Cadre emotional feelings in animals and humans. Witting Cogn. 2005;xiv:30–eighty. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• Patel Advertizing. Music, Language and the Brain. New York: Oxford University Press; 2007. [Google Scholar]
• Peretz I. The nature of music from a biological perspective. Cognition. 2006;100:i–32. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• Phillips H. The pleasance seekers. New Scientist. 2003;180:36–twoscore. [Google Scholar]
• Ravin JG. The visual difficulties of selected artists and limitations of ophthalmological intendance during the 19th and 20th centuries. Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc. 2008;106:402–425. [PMC free commodity] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• Relethford JH. Genetic testify and the modern human origins fence. Heredity. 2008;100:555–563. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• Rolls ET, Grabenhorst F. The orbitofrontal cortex and beyond: From affect to decision-making. Prog Neurobio. 2008;86:216–244. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• Rose FC. Neurology of the Arts: Painting, Music, Literature. London: Imperial Higher Press; 2004. [Google Scholar]
• Vartanian O, Goel V. Neuroanatomical correlates of aesthetic preference for paintings. NeuroReport. 2004;15:893–897. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• Wade N. Earlier the Dawn: Recovering the Lost History of Our Ancestors. New York: Penguin Press; 2006. [Google Scholar]
• Woods B, Collard M. The human genus. Scientific discipline. 1999;284:65–71. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• Zahavi A. Decorative patterns and the evolution of art. New Scientist. 1978;19:182–184. [Google Scholar]
• Zaidel DW. Neuropsychology of Art: Neurological, Cognitive, and Evolutionary Perspectives. UK: Psychology Press; 2005. [Google Scholar]
• Zaidel DW. Encephalon and art: Neuro-clues from intersection of disciplines. In: Skov M, Vartanian O, editors. Neuroaesthetics. Amityville, NY: Baywood; 2009. pp. 153–170. [Google Scholar]
• Zak PJ, Kurzban R, Matzner WT. Oxytocin is associated with human being trustworthiness. Horm Behav. 2005;48:522–527. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• Zeki S. A century of cerebral achromatopsia. Brain. 1990;113:1721–1777. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

---

Articles from Periodical of Anatomy are provided here courtesy of Anatomical Society of Great Great britain and Ireland

---

prichardtheirly76.blogspot.com

Source: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2815940/

Share this post